Rocky road to democracy

 The road to a democratic future is rocky. But the attack on democracy typically starts quite slowly. On the surface, everything seems normal, as if an invasion never happened. In baby steps, the BJP government silenced all the mockingbirds in the judiciary, media, opposition parties, the elections commission, and universities. By changing the constitution, the government was able to remove all constraints on constitutional provisions and norms due to an absolute majority in parliament. The abrogation of Article 370, the favourable judgement on the Babri Masjid case, imposing NSA on anyone at the drop of a hat, citizenship amendments, etc. A pliant judiciary more or less backs every action of the government. This inflection point for democracy is the beginning of a new autocratic India. It's springtime for the BJP government. Hitler is keeping an eye on us from hell with a smile.

costly affair marriage

ven though marriages are made in heaven, it can be very expensive to bring them into reality. A few decades ago, weddings were little family gatherings. Now, they are extravagant affairs that last for days. The average parent or individual spends one-fifth of "An Indian usually spends one-fifth of his lifetime wealth on a wedding." As a result of the popularity of Yash Raj and Barjatya movies, South Indian wedding ceremonies now include mehndi, sangeet, and haldi, which are fun rituals. For the host, this excess can result in expenses exceeding their lifetime savings, which can be regrettable heavy lifting for them. In return, they contribute to the flourishing growth of the wedding industry.

Financially, the girls' parents are drained, and their resources are depleted. The celebration of marriage hides the pain that is later felt.

MY MIRROR SELF

Unlike humans, mirrors don't distort, bend, or misinterpret the images they reflect. Life's events can be viewed differently.

I gave the mirror a harsh, judgmental look as I fixed my gaze on it. Being bald, it is not necessary for me to check my reflection more than once for combing "operations." I'm getting older, too, as indicated by the few greying hairs that are still on my head. I examined myself more closely and put aside my typical negative thoughts about how useless I am. Disappointment, anger, and sometimes even disgust fill my mind as I walk away from the mirror. I looked into the mirror and saw aspects of myself that I didn’t like. The man who stared back at me pointed out my imperfections—and more and more imperfections. No matter how fast I move in my circle of competence, I will remain in the same place. Velocity would have brought stability to the carrier's trajectory. I have lost it in my life.

The story is a clear account of missed chances and opportunities. I realised it was an aspirational problem. I didn't even put any effort into being clear about my own life goals. Acquiring qualifications and accumulating wisdom are two very different things. In my case, my wisdom teeth were completely absent. I ended up becoming something I didn't even want to be. For me, I could say a career as a teacher is the last refuge for a failure like me.

In the rear-view mirror, nothing appears very bright or even particularly rosy.

I had to get used to looking ahead rather than backwards while looking through the windscreen. What lies ahead on the road? I struggle through the fog, trying to keep my eyes on the road despite my own myopia. So the view through the windscreen isn't exactly sunny. I think it's time to focus on what lies ahead for a while instead of what lies behind me.

DAILY MUSING

 

A country requires foot soldiers all the time. So they have an expensive campaign. They sell thrills, money, education, communication, meaning, and honour. The relentless television commercial never tells us about the dark aperture that exists inside the real life of a soldier, complete with life-long injury, inadequate care, insanity, and death. An ordinary soldier cannot see the reason behind the game of politics and a military general‘s love for war. All of these massive machines help the weapon industry thrive. Billions of dollars in advertising cannot change the fact that leaders and generals are dreaming up wars to finish off communists and are terminally and falsely afraid of terrorism in which young men will die.

Lured by these high-level abstract ideas, the soldier has no time to reflect on immoral and illegal wars or the horrors of an inhuman era. Wars are seldom fought to preserve freedom and democracy. Wars are the premium products for leaders, generals, and industrialists to use to power war machines.

Copyright In India: An Overview

 

It is important to remember that just buying or owning the original or a copy of a Copyright work does not give you the permission to use it the way you wish. For example, buying a copy of a book, CD, video, computer program etc. does not necessarily give you the right to make copies (even for private use), play or show them in public. Other everyday uses of Copyright material, such as photocopying, scanning, downloading from a CD-ROM or online database, all involve copying the work. So, permission is generally needed. Also, usage beyond the terms of an agreed licence will require further permission.Copyright registration in India gives economic rights to the creators of materials such as literature, art, music, sound recordings and films and broadcasts; thus enabling them to control the use of their material in a number of ways, such as by making copies, issuing copies to the public, performing in public, broadcasting and use online. It also gives moral rights to be identified as the creator of certain kinds of material and to object to its distortion or its mutilation. (Material protected by copyright is termed as "work").

Copyright does not protect ideas, names or titles. The purpose of Copyright law in India is to allow Copyright registrants to gain economic rewards for their efforts and to encourage future creativity and the development of new material which benefits everyone. Copyright material is usually the result of creative skills and/or significant labour and/or investment, and without protection, it would often be very easy for others to exploit material without paying the creator. Most uses of Copyright material therefore require permission from the Copyright owner. However there are certain exceptions where some minor uses may not result in Copyright infringement.

Copyright protection is automatic as soon as there is a record in any form of the material that has been created. There is a provision to register the Copyright under the Indian Copyright Act, although this is voluntary.

Owner of a Copyright

• In the case of a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work, the general rule is that the author, i.e. the person who created the work is the first owner of the economic rights under Copyright. However, where such a work is made in the course of employment, the employer is the first owner of these rights, unless an agreement to the contrary has been made with the author.
• In the case of a film, the principal director and the film producer are joint authors and first owners of the economic rights, and similar provisions as referred to above apply where the director is employed.
• In the case of a sound recording, the record producer is the author and first owner of Copyright; in the case of a broadcast, the broadcaster; and in the case of a published edition, the publisher.

Copyright is, however, a form of property which, like physical property, can be bought or sold, inherited or otherwise transferred, wholly or in part. So, some or all of the economic rights may subsequently belong to someone other than the first owner. In contrast, the moral rights accorded to authors of literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works and film directors remain with the author or director or pass to his or her heirs on death. Copyright in material produced by a Government department belongs to the Government of India.

Copyright owners generally have the right to authorise or prohibit any of the following in relation to their works:

• Copying of the work in any way E.g. photocopying/reproducing a printed page by handwriting, typing or scanning into a computer or taping live or recorded music.
• Issuing copies of the work to the public.
• Public delivery of lectures or speeches etc.
• Broadcasting of the work, audio/video or including it in a cable programme.
• Making an adaptation of the work such as by translating a literary or dramatic work, transcribing a musical work or converting a computer program into a different computer language or code.

Copyright is infringed when any of the above acts are done without authorisation, whether directly or indirectly, or whether substantially (in part) or in whole, unless what is done falls within the scope of exceptions to Copyright infringement permitting certain minor uses of material.

There are a number of exceptions to Copyright that allow limited use of Copyright works without the permission of the Copyright owner. For example, limited use of works may be possible for research and private study, criticism or review, reporting current events, judicial proceedings, teaching in schools and other educational establishments and not-for-profit playing of sound recordings.

But if you are copying large amounts of material and/or making multiple copies then you may still need permission. Also where a Copyright exception covers publication of excerpts from a Copyright work, it is generally necessary to include an acknowledgement. Sometimes more than one exception may apply to the use you are thinking of.

Exceptions to Copyright do not generally give you rights to use the Copyright material; they just state that certain activities do not infringe Copyright. So it is possible that an exception could be overridden by a contract you have signed limiting your ability to do things that would otherwise fall within the scope of an exception.

Important Features Of Indian Patents

 

Section 3(d)

This section has been the bone of contention for the pharmaceutical sector as it prevents “evergreening” of drug patents. Under this section, the following inventions are not patentable:

• a mere discovery of a new form of a known substance which does not result in the enhancement of the known efficacy of that substance;
• the mere discovery of any new property of a known substance;
• the mere discovery of a new use for a known substance;
• the mere use of a known process unless such known process results in a new product or employs at least one new reactant;
• the mere use of a known machine or apparatus.

The explanation to section 3(d) further clarifies that the salts, esters, ethers, polymorphs, metabolites, pure form, particle size, isomers, mixtures of isomers, complexes, combinations and other derivatives of known substance may be considered to be the same substance. It however states that such salts, esters, ethers, polymorphs, metabolites, pure form, particle size, isomers, mixtures of isomers, complexes, combinations and other derivatives of such known substance may be considered as patentable only if they differ significantly in properties with regard to efficacy.

In a recent case, in relation to a pharmaceutical substance, the courts held that efficacy means ‘therapeutic efficacy’. For proving increased therapeutic efficacy, strict standard of proof is required. In other words, in order to overcome the hurdle posed by Section 3(d), data based on research and experimental data showing enhanced therapeutic efficacy must be submitted.

Compulsory licenses

This provision strikes a balance between public interest (access to existing drugs at reasonable prices) and private interest (monopoly rights under patents). A compulsory license merely serves to limit the exclusive monopoly rights of a patent holder. In order to prevent abuse of patent rights, the government may authorize the grant of a compulsory license without the permission of the patent holder.

After three years from the date of grant of a patent, an interested party may apply to the Controller for the grant of a compulsory license alleging that:

• the reasonable requirements of the public with respect to the invention have not been satisfied or
• that the invention is not available at a reasonable price or
• that the patented invention has not been worked in the territory of India.

If the Controller is satisfied that a prima facie case for an applicant for compulsory license has been made, he shall serve a notice on the patentees who, if they so desire, may oppose the application for compulsory license.

Patents and Computer Software

It is possible to patent programs for computers which when run on a computer produce a "technical effect or includes hardware". However, if a program does not produce a technical effect when run on a computer, it is unlikely to be patentable. A technical effect is generally an improvement in technology and needs to be in an area of technology that is patentable. For instance, an improved program for translating between Japanese and English is not patentable because linguistics is a mental process, not a technical field. On the other hand, a program which speeds up image enhancement may be patentable because it produces a technical improvement in a technical area.

Some countries, such as the USA, with a large potential market for your software, have a more liberal approach to software patenting and often grant patents for software, which would be excluded in India and other countries. Deciding whether or not a particular computer program is patentable is a complex issue and advice from a Patent Attorney/Agent may help to determine the most effective form of protection available.

VALUE CHAIN/SUPPLY CHAIN

 

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT

 

Principles of Effective Supply Chain Management:

As supply chain moves into the era of dynamic competitive environment it become necessary for the
companies to have effective and efficient supply chain management system for their company. The
formation of supply chain management system rests on four principles, which serves as a guide for
supply chain managers. These principles can also be summarized in the form of 4R’s responsiveness,
reliability, resilience, and relationships.
 Responsiveness:

In today’s globalized and competitive environment it has become difficult for the companies to
immediately satisfy the varied needs of consumers. Customer not only wants that their needs should be
fulfilled in shorter period but they also want flexibility and solution of their varied problems. In other
terms the supplier has to meet the needs of customers then the time required before in fulfilling these
needs. The most important concept in today’s fast changing environment is agility. Agility means the
ability to move quickly and to meet the customer demands as quickly as possible. Thus responsiveness
implies that the organization should maintain good relation with consumers and always remain in touch
with customers and also do intensive market research and manufacture the products according to the
requirements of consumer. Responsiveness also depicts that the company should supply the products to
consumers as and when demanded by the consumers.

 Reliability:

Today in uncertain times it has become essential for every company to carry safe stock because the time
is uncertain. Uncertainty can be of many types like unavailability of raw materials in near future,
supplier is not in a position to deliver the goods on time in near future, and changes in demand pattern
etc. Various improvements should be made by the companies so that they can become reliable firms in
the minds of consumers. Companies now days are also using six sigma techniques and tools for
improving the reliability of supply chain management system of their organization.

Resilience:

Today’s markets are becoming very volatile due to various changes in the economic, political, social and  technological environment in the economy. Due to these changes companies are facing business shocks and discontinuity in their business process. According to Oxford Dictionary “Resilience refers to the ability of the supply chain to cope with unexpected disturbances”. Those companies with robust supply chain management are resilient lines and in a position to fight with the uncertain and dynamic business environment.

 Relationships:

In today’s mobile environment the role of partnership is increasing rapidly. When partnership is there in the organization then it will bring innovation, quality of the products will improve, reduction in costs will occur, and delivery of scheduled products will happen at proper time in the company. Thus building relations with partners has become an essential criterion in supply chain management system. Partnerships also help in restriction of entry of new competitors in the organization. Companies should not only focus on relations with partners but companies should also lay emphasis on relations with consumers. This will help the companies to win the confidence of consumers and build a relation of mutual trust and confidence with consumers. Thus supply chain management system main emphasis is to be a market leader and establish an environment of mutual trust with consumers and other parties

UNIT 1 SAPM - WHAT IS THE STOCK MARKET ? & PARTICIPANTS

 Investing in equities is an important investment that we make to generate inflation-beating returns. This was the conclusion we drew from the previous chapter. Having said that, how do we go about investing in equities? Clearly, before we dwell further into this topic, it is essential to understand the ecosystem in which equities operate.

Just like the way we go to the neighbourhood Kirana store or a supermarket to shop for our daily needs, similarly, we go to the stock market to shop (read as transact) for equity investments. The stock market is where everyone who wants to transact in shares goes to. Transact, in simple terms, means buying and selling. You can’t buy/sell shares of a public company like Infosys without transacting through the stock markets for all practical purposes.

The main purpose of the stock market is to help you facilitate your transactions. So if you are a buyer of a share, the stock market helps you meet the seller and vice versa.

Now unlike a supermarket, the stock market does not exist in a brick and mortar form. It exists in electronic form. You access the market electronically from your computer and go about conducting your transactions (buying and selling of shares).

It is also important to note that you can access the stock market via a registered intermediary called the stockbroker. We will discuss more the stockbrokers at a later point.

There are two main stock exchanges in India that make up the stock markets. 

They are the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) and the National Stock Exchange (NSE). 

Besides these two exchanges, there are many other regional stock exchanges like Bangalore Stock Exchange, Madras Stock Exchange that are more or less getting phased out and don’t really play any meaningful role anymore.

Stock Market Participants 

The stock market attracts individuals and corporations from diverse backgrounds. Anyone who transacts in the stock market is called a market participant. The market participant can be classified into various categories. Some of the categories of market participants are as follows:

1. Domestic Retail Participants – These are people like you and me transacting in markets
2. NRI’s and OCI – These are people of Indian origin but based outside India
3. Domestic Institutions – These are large corporate entities based in India. A classic example would be the LIC of India.
4. Domestic Asset Management Companies (AMC) – Typical participants in this category would be the mutual fund companies such as SBI Mutual Fund, DSP Black Rock, Fidelity Investments, HDFC AMC, etc.
5. Foreign Institutional Investors – Non-Indian corporate entities. These could be foreign asset management companies, hedge funds, and other investors.

Now, irrespective of the category of market participant, everyone’s agenda is the same – to make profitable transactions. More bluntly put – to make money.

When money is involved, human emotions in the form of greed and fear run high. One can easily fall prey to these emotions and get involved in unfair practices. India has its fair share of such twisted practices, thanks to Harshad Mehta’s operations and the like.

Given this, the stock markets need someone who can set the game rules (commonly referred to as regulation and compliance) and ensure that people adhere to these regulations and compliance thereby making the markets a level playing field for everyone.

organisational behaviour UNIT 1

 

CONCEPT OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR 

here is no shortage of quotes in which inspirational business leaders describe the sources of their success. Their reasons are often diverse, but almost everyone comes back to the same thing: people. The people are the company; they create success. Even so, there is more to successful business leadership than managing human capital, since you must also have a suitable structure and culture at your firm. I

imagine the U.S. military: it boasts some of the best-trained soldiers in the world, but that talent would be wasted without a structure designed to appropriately deploy forces. In other words, the military would not be as successful without streamlined organizational behavior. Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of how people interact in organizations. These interactions are governed by a number of factors, including your personal life, the personality of your boss or your boss' boss, a direct report, the team you have been assigned to, or the direction that the top of the organization has given to you. OB researchers carefully monitor these dynamics within an organization, because any time there is friction, money is lost. A certain level of friction is to be expected (and often even desired), but most of the friction that occurs within an organization is counterproductive and detrimental to the bottom line. 

what is an organization? An organization is a collection of individuals arranged in a particular way and embedded in an ever-changing environment in order to achieve a common goal. 

organizations in business, focusing on how the individual plays a role in the success of the organization. You will learn that you must understand what influences individual behavior before you can study how individuals interact with organizations. As in psychology and sociology, the individual person is the focus of organizational behavior. Because sciences like psychology and sociology are older, more established fields of study than organizational behavior,

in very simple words, organizations can be defined as group of people coming

together to achieve a common goal.

What Is Organizational Behavior?

1. Organizational behavior (OB) is defined as the systematic study and application of knowledge about how individuals and groups act within the organizations where they work. As you will see throughout this book, definitions are important. They are important because they tell us what something is as well as what it is not. For example, we will not be addressing childhood development in this course—that concept is often covered in psychology—but we might draw on research about twins raised apart to understand whether job attitudes are affected by genetics.
2. OB draws from other disciplines to create a unique field. , you will most likely recognize OB’s roots in other disciplines. For example, when we review topics such as personality and motivation, we will again review studies from the field of psychology. The topic of team processes relies heavily on the field of sociology. relating to decision making, you will come across the influence of economics. When we study power and influence in organizations, we borrow heavily from political sciences. Even medical science contributes to the field of organizational behavior, particularly to the study of stress and its effects on individuals.

behaviour. So, what is behavior? In general, psychology is considered to be study of behavior. So, what is behavior? In a very simple way, behaviour is a response to a stimulus. So, for example, you are

supposed to learn through what I am teaching or what I am lecturing; so learning is a behaviour or a response which happens because of the stimuli which you get, which is my lecture.

Why Organizational Behavior Matters

OB matters at three critical levels. It matters because it is all about things you care about. OB can help you become a more engaged organizational member. Getting along with others, getting a great job, lowering your stress level, making more effective decisions, and working effectively within a team…these are all great things, and OB addresses them!

It matters because employers care about OB. A recent survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) asked employers which skills are the most important for them when evaluating job candidates, and OB topics topped the list.

The following were the top five personal qualities/skills:

1. Communication skills (verbal and written)
2. Honesty/integrity
3. Interpersonal skills (relates well to others)
4. Motivation/initiative
5. Strong work ethic

SO  organizational behaviour is understanding human behaviour at work. When you say human behavior, it can be of many levels; it can be at individual level, which is like their
motivation, attitude, perception and things like that. It can be interpersonal, interpersonal means between people; conflict, cooperation and things like that. Group dynamics, in more than two people; in groups and teams, is what kind of things happen within a team.

Nature of OB can be well understood with the following definitions:

  “Organisation behaviour is the study which is used to evaluate overall recourses (Physical resources and human recourse) and helps to enhance the productivity of the organisation.”  “Organization behaviour is a systematic study to examine the knowledge of individual at work and their act within the organisation.” 

 V.G. Kondalkar defined ‘it is the study to investigate the impact of behaviour on an individual, group of individuals and organisational structure within the organisation. The focus is given to enhance and apply such knowledge to gain organisational effectiveness. 

Further he has divided the definition in three key elements: a. Organizational behaviour is an investigative study of an individual or groups of individuals. b. The impact of organisational behaviour studies on human behaviour. c. The proper utilization of knowledge to achieve organisational goal effectively. 

Concepts of OB Organisational behaviour is based on fundamental concepts which involve the nature of people and nature of the organisations. 

The basic assumptions underlying the concept of OB are given as below:

  Individual differences- Every individual is different from another individual in terms of his/her intelligence, personality, physique etc. The concept of individual differences is evolved from the field of psychology. It is assumed that every individual differs from another individual from the very first day of his/her birth. But, unique experiences which the individual face during different stages of life make him/her even more different. The concept of individual differences has motivated management to treat employees differently and find broad ways of dealing with employees.  Good human relations- 

Organizational behaviour has attempts to maintain interpersonal relationships between employers and employees. It provides directions regarding how to maintain good relation with employees and how to solve their problem.

  Effective Organizational climate- OB stresses upon maintaining a good climate by developing sound interpersonal relations, hygienic working conditions, fair and adequate 

ORGANIZATION GROUP OF INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL compensation, better and safe operation equipment, effective leadership, employee participation etc. 

 Motivation of Human Resources- Field of OB has motivated managers to motivate the employees by giving them various kinds of rewards and appreciate them on the basis of quality of work.

  Perception- Perceptions of people differ when they see an object. In the similar way, in organizations, employees see and perceive work differently. This is primarily because of their different personalities, needs, demographics factors, past experiences and social surroundings. 

 Desire for involvement- Every employee is actively seeking opportunities so as to involve him/her in decision-making problems and to share what they know and to learn from the new experiences. Therefore, organizations should provide employees a chance to express their opinions, ideas and suggestions for decision-making problems. A meaningful involvement can bring mutual benefit to both parties. 

 A whole person- When an organisation recruits a new employee, only skills and qualities of that employee is not hired but, his/her social background, like and dislikes, needs, motives, pride, motivations and prejudices are also hired. Organisations accept the employees along with their personal lives and attempt to create home away from home.

  Caused behaviour- Human beings are rational beings and therefore the behaviour expressed by the employees in the organisation is also caused and not random. Behaviour of employees is always directed towards some goals or ends which suits their interest. The challenge for OB managers is to understand the cause behind a particular behaviour of an employee and the ways to modify the behaviour. 

 Human dignity- The concept of human dignity is driven by ethical philosophy rather than the scientific principles of management. The concept guides that every individual should be treated with dignity and respect. The concepts also suggests that human beings are of higher order than other factors of production and therefore any comparison between human beings and non human factors of production is not fair. This philosophy rejects the old philosophy of considering human resources as an economic tool.

  Organisations are social systems- Organisations are social systems and therefore their activities, policies and procedures are governed by the social as well as psychological laws. Like individuals, organisations also have social norms and status. Growth and performance of the organisations are influenced by the behaviour of groups and individual drives of people working in it. In every organisation, two types of social systems run in parallel: formal system and informal social system.

CSE - 2ND YR - ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR - MANAGING CONFLICT

 

How do you manage conflict? Do you aim to accommodate others' needs? Or do you put your own needs first? The key is to find a balance where both your needs and the needs of others are met. View this presentation on managing conflict for a quick introduction on various conflict management tendencies.

 

¨  When determining how to manage conflict, we tend to utilize different styles depending on the situation:

¡  Avoidance—Non-confrontational: walking away from the situation

¡  Accommodation—Non-confrontational: setting aside your needs for the needs of the other party

¡  Competition—Win/lose: your loss is the other party’s gain; tactics include: forcing, low-balling, time constraints, deception, etc.

¡  Compromise—Splitting the difference: (i.e. flipping a coin, cutting something in half)

Collaboration—Win/win: both parties mutually benefit, and creative alternatives are achieved

New Directions for Conflict Management

¨  Bargaining/Negotiation

¨  Negotiation: an interpersonal decision-making process necessary whenever we cannot achieve our objectives single-handedly

Ex. Buying a car; buying a house; things at work

Integrative Bargaining

Distributive Bargaining

¨  Third-Party Conflict Resolution

Differences Between
Distributive & Integrative Bargaining

Distributive

¨  Claim Value (win-lose)

¨  Positional/ Rights/ Power

¨  Goal: Individual Gain

¨  Single Issue

¨  No future relationship

Integrative

¨  Create Value (win-win)

¨  Principled / Interest

¨  Goal: Mutual & Individual Gain

¨  Multiple Issues

¨  Long-term relationship

Outside Conflict Resolution

¡  Mediators—help parties facilitate the dispute but hold no decision power

¡  Arbitrators—makes binding decisions based on the proposals and arguments of the parties involved in the conflict

 

 

UNIT 5 COMMUNICATION : STEPS INVOLVED FOR COMMUNICATION

 

The following steps are involved for completion of communication process:

1. Sender or communicator prepares the message neatly. He is the source where message is generated. It is he who starts the communication process.

2. The message is to be encoded symbolically which is to be conveyed. This message is the idea came into the mind of sender which he wanted to convey.

3. The message is to be transmitted through a method of communication the choice of which is to be made. The message may be transmitted orally face to face, through messenger, through air or a written note in the form of order, memo, leaflet etc. It is up to sender to make appropriate choice.

4. Medium of communication includes telephone, internet, through messenger, post, fax, E-mail, etc. The choice of medium again depends on the sender.

5. Receiver or communicate is a person for whom message was sent by the sender or communicator. Receiver after receiving the message must understand it in proper perspective then only the purpose of communication will be fulfilled.

6. The receiver after decoding the message must act or take action as per instructions contained in the message.

7. The last step is to take feedback. The feedback means the sender should know whether the receiver has received the message and understood it. The confirmation regarding this is feedback. The positive feedback is effective communication. With feedback the communication process is complete.

Oral Communication:

It is simple and common method of communication. It is verbal communication. It is person to person communication. Speaking personally and exchanging views and ideas with the subordinates and employees has special effects and helps in developing good human relations. To make oral communication effective, choice of appropriate words to have clarity in the message should be used. Harsh words should be avoided.

The tone of a person also affects the communication even though good and appropriate words are used. It should be controlled by the speaker. Efforts should be made to feel the listener at ease. He should not get annoyed after listening to the speaker’s instructions. Oral communication is an effective tool of maintaining good human relations.

Smile on a face, personal enquiry, greeting a person, sense of humour, understanding practical difficulties are some of the vital clues make the communication very effective. Oral communication also has some advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages:

1. It is quick and saves time and cost.

2. Speaker knows the reaction of the listener immediately.

3. It is more effective channel of communication.

4. It is a useful tool during emergent situation.

5. The feedback is immediate. 6 It is more accurate.

7. It helps in effective supervision and control.

 8. Messages are clearly understood because oral communication is a two way channel. i.e. face to face communication or using certain mechanical devices like telephone or a latest electronic system video conferencing.

9. It is very effective tool for employees and employers to sort out their problems

Non-Verbal Communication:

Communicating with gestures, body movements, actions, signals, and facial expressions is non-verbal communication. In primitive society communication was non-verbal. Non­verbal communication is visual which can be observed, recorded and understood. Non­verbal communication is used along with verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is not obsolete but is still in vogue. An executive can understand from the facial expressions the feelings of his subordinates.

When an executive is busy with his work he calls his assistant with hand signal. Under certain circumstances it is better to use non-verbal communication because words may hurt the feelings and one should remember the saying that “Acts speak louder than words.”

Channels of Communication:

In modern times the organisations want speedy flow of information. In the world of competition this is the need of the hour because if you are late you will lag behind. Now internet is in which will throw away old channels. Any information required is on net now. The channel of communication is a path of transmitting messages from sender to the receiver. The managers need various types of information quickly and on time to carry on his managerial activities effectively. Organizations according to their needs establish their own system of communication. The popular and in practice channels of communication are downward, upward, horizontal and diagonal.

Downward Communication:

Downward channel of communication flows from top to the bottom level of management. As the direction of the flow of communication suggests, it is from superior to subordinate. This type of channel of communication speaks for authoritarian character of management and environment. This communication is directive in nature. The communication from superiors include directives, orders, instructions relating to policies, programmes, mission, objectives and other information relating to specific task etc.

1. It is used for issuing directives to the employees.

2. It helps in providing information regarding policies and procedures of the organisation.

3. Orders of the top management in respect of implementation of programmes of the organisation are communicated through this channel.

Disadvantages:

1. It is time consuming and often causes delay.

2. Downward communication is one way hence there is no way to know feedback.

3. It is very rigid channel of communication.

4. Subordinate’s reaction cannot be known and understood through this channel. 

Upward Communication:

It is just the reverse of the downward channel of communication and flows from bottom to top level of management. The importance of this channel of communication is being realized. Superiors get feedback and know the reactions, feelings and opinion of their subordinates and staff working at lower level through this channel of communication. It helps in knowing the grievances of the employees which are generally not known to the superior authorities. It also has some advantages and disadvantages. 

Advantages:

1. It helps in having two-way communication in the organisation. 

2. It develops sense of belonging among the employees because their opinions have been given an ear. 

3. Superiors get immediate feedback to their instructions through upward communication channel. 

4. It is an important source of motivating employees. 

Disadvantages:

1. Upward communication is generally discouraged and ignored by the superiors. 

2. The suggestions and opinions of the lower level staff do not reach the top level as are obstructed in the middle by the immediate superiors.

Hygiene factors, Motivation theories

Hygiene factors included company policies, supervision, working conditions, salary, safety, and security on the job. To illustrate, imagine that you are working in an unpleasant work environment. Your office is too hot in the summer and too cold in the winter. You are being harassed and mistreated. You would certainly be miserable in such a work environment. However, if these problems were solved (your office temperature is just right and you are not harassed at all), would you be motivated? Most likely, you would take the situation for granted. In fact, many factors in our work environment are things that we miss when they are absent but take for granted if they are present.

motivation is one of the forces that lead to performance. Motivation is defined as the desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to goal-directed behavior. When we refer to someone as being motivated, we mean that the person is trying hard to accomplish a certain task. Motivation is clearly important if someone is to perform well; however, it is not sufficient. Ability—or having the skills and knowledge required to perform the job—is also important and is sometimes the key determinant of effectiveness. Finally, environmental factors such as having the resources, information, and support one needs to perform well are critical to determine performance. At different times, one of these three factors may be the key to high performance. For example, for an employee sweeping the floor, motivation may be the most important factor that determines performance. In contrast, even the most motivated individual would not be able to successfully design a house without the necessary talent involved in building quality homes. Being motivated is not the same as being a high performer and is not the sole reason why people perform well, but it is nevertheless a key influence over our performance level.

So what motivates people? Why do some employees try to reach their targets and pursue excellence while others merely show up at work and count the hours? As with many questions involving human beings, the answer is anything but simple. Instead, there are several theories explaining the concept of motivation. 

Performance is a function of the interaction between an individual’s motivation, ability, and environment.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - B TECH - CSE 2ND YR

The most basic of Maslow’s needs are physiological needs. Physiological needs refer to the need for food, water, and other biological needs. These needs are basic because when they are lacking, the search for them may overpower all other urges. Imagine being very hungry. At that point, all your behavior may be directed at finding food. Once you eat, though, the search for food ceases and the promise of food no longer serves as a motivator. Once physiological needs are satisfied, people tend to become concerned about safety needs. Are they free from the threat of danger, pain, or an uncertain future? On the next level up, social needs refer to the need to bond with other human beings, be loved, and form lasting attachments with others.

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.  The satisfaction of social needs makes esteem needs more salient. Esteem need refers to the desire to be respected by one’s peers, feel important, and be appreciated. Finally, at the highest level of the hierarchy, the need for self-actualization refers to “becoming all you are capable of becoming.” This need manifests itself by the desire to acquire new skills, take on new challenges, and behave in a way that will lead to the attainment of one’s life goals.

stages of conflicts

 

STEPS IN MANAGING CONFLICT

 

DEFINITION OF CONFLICT , CAUSE OF CONFLICT EFFECT OF CONFLICT

 what do we mean by "conflict"? The term is widely used to describe important differences between individual humans or groups of humans. In its major sense it applies to warfare between nations. If existing differences are not somehow adequately handled, the involved individuals or groups are unable to come together in understanding and cooperation. However, not all conflict is bad. Differences which result in initiative and creativity are stimulating for those involved, and such conflict is essential for progress.

CAUSE OF CONFLICT 

Nations, organizations, and groups are made up of individual human beings. Each human has through life experiences developed a set of values and evolved a set of behavioral rules. 

These values and rules are sufficiently alike in a given society (more so in a given segment of a society) to allow justice, morals, and ethics to exist and create general agreement about what is right and what is wrong.

But, the value-rule set for each individual is a unique set not fully shared by other humans. These differences in value-rule sets are most likely the basic causes of conflict. 

major conflict cause is the motivation of the separate individuals.Each is motivated by a peculiarly unique degree of satisfactions in a set of needs. It is quite likely that in a given group situation the individuals concerned will be aiming their personal efforts at slightly different objectives; such objectives may be similar enough to permit cooperative effort but sufficiently different to create some conflict.

A third major cause of conflict—and one more obvious to us--the differing idealogic and philosophic bases we possess. These relate to a great extent to the value-rule set but are sufficiently different to warrant recognition as possible conflict causes. What we use as a base for our ideals and our concepts becomes a great importance to us, and we do not want that base challenged or questioned by others.

An example is the old-timer's reluctance to change from a thus-far successful technique even though evidence indicates that a change would be beneficial. When we perceive attack on our ideals from another, we respond with energy and, often, heat. Note the actions of some militant minority groups and you observe idealogic/philosophic conflict reactions at work

Effects Of Conflict 

Conflict has both positive and negative effects. It can be positive when it encourages creativity, new looks at o1d conditions, the clarification of points of view, and the development of human capabilities to handle interpersonal differences. All of us have experienced a surge of creativity when we permit the ideas of others to trigger our imagination, as for example in a brainstorming session. Conflict can be negative when it creates resistance to change, establishes turmoil in organization or interpersonal relations, fosters distrust, builds a feeling of defeat, or widens the chasm of misunderstanding.